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Introduction

Welcome to the Bahrain Educational Context page!

The Kingdom of Bahrain is an island situated in the Western side of Asia, within the Arabic Gulf. Bahrain is an area with a diverse linguistic community formulated by many different ethnic groups from various places across the globe. Amongst approximately a million and eight hundred thousand inhabitants, Arabic, English, and various Asian languages formulate the primary discourses spoken within the country. However, the majority of the inhabitants are capable of speaking the English language to an comprehensible degree.

Population: 1,855,702
Official Language: Arabic
Regional Languages: Bahraini Arabic, Sunni Arabic, Ajami Arabic
Ethnic Groups: 9 major ethnic groups

Education in Bahrain

The Kingdom of Bahrain maintains a mandatory education policy within the country, with free schooling made available to all its citizens. The education program within Bahrain commences at primary school, and is totally encompassed of a three-stage model. In total, all citizens must undergo a mandatory nine year education program. Approximately fifty adult education centers have also been established by the government in an attempt to aid all citizens in the acquisition of any skill necessary. Furthermore, two leading post-school educational institutes exist within the country to support adult learners, those being the University of Bahrain and the Bahrain polytechnic (www.scholaro.com).

According to newofbahrain.com, there exist 250 institutions focusing on early education in the country. Furthermore, 210 government schools also exist, as well as 79 private schools. The Kingdom of Bahrain educates more than 230,000 students, of which approximately 84,000 are enrolled in private schools, and 147,000 in public schools. The information provided below conveys the number of students enrolled in public and private schools, as per the records of www.moe.gov.bh.

Table 1. Number of students enrolled in public and private schools.

Languages in Bahrain

The primary languages spoken in the Kingdom of Bahrain are rather numerous, and encompass the lingua franca, Modern Standard Arabic, Urdu, Hindi, Persian, Tagalog, amongst other languages as well. The status of English itself primarily ranges between being considered a foreign language, or a second language. However, it is fundamental to note that the widespread use of English in the kingdom renders it difficult to consider it merely a foreign language equivalent to aforementioned languages. The vast majority of individuals in the country speak English and it is widespread amongst almost the entire population, thus, its status can be considered higher and more embedded into the country’s linguistic dynamic.

English language Education: Brief History

The English language has become a fundamental language utilized in the Kingdom of Bahrain. Its importance has grown more significant across the generations and its use has become increasingly widespread. According to Gomaa (2020), the actual use of English in Bahrain is extremely common and it can be found that it is actually spoken rather well across the island. As conveyed b the Bahrain Teacher’s College in 2012, “the Ministry of Education has made a commitment to preparing students for participation in the global knowledge economy through delivering English as Second Language training to students from Grade 1 on.”

Thus, the importance of English language education can be highlighted as a recruitment by the Bahraini Government itself. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2015) also states that the fields of business and education also make extensive use of the language, as well relating that English is a mandatory subject in schools and extensively utilized in English. As per the research conducted by The Education and Training Quality Authority (2010), English is the main medium of instruction utilized in the largest public university in the country, that being the University of Bahrain. Its use is widespread across the majority of colleges such as Engineering, Science, Business Administration, Applied Studies, IT, Bahrain Teachers College, as well as the Department of English Language and Literature.

When Bahrain’s curriculum was revised in 1994 and English as a Second Language was introduced in public schools commencing from the fourth grade. The sessions initially allocated four sessions per week to ESL instruction. By 2000–2001, the grade at which the language was introduced changed to the third grade to compensate for the limited proficiency of ESL learners at the time. Further revision in 2003 resulted in English being introduced as early as the first grade, and this was a decision taken in the year 2004 by the Ministry of Education (Gita Ponnuchamy, 2017). Further efforts related to enhancing language proficiency amongst learners in Bahrain includes the establishment of the Quality Assurance Authority for Education and Training (QAA) in 2008.

This entity is responsible for the measure and assessment of the quality of English education at all academic levels. The primary role of the QAA is reviewing the standards and education provided by all public and private schools, as well as higher educational institutes through official visitations, reviews, and training programs directed at ensuring that international standards are maintained in language education. Additional efforts include providing Foundation and Orientation courses to all university students in undergraduate programs to aid them in adapting to a completely English-oriented academic context where all mediums and resources of instruction are in the English language (Ponnuchamy, 2017).

How English is used in Bahrain

English was first significantly exposed to Bahrain during the rule of the British when British agents first arrived in the country, which commenced in 1820 (Al-Nabi, 2012). As the British primarily settled in Juffair and Awali, the interaction between local citizens and the British was not extensive, and thus, social boundaries were maintained.

According to Gomaa (2017), “English has emerged as a lingua franca between multilingual speakers in Bahrain (p. 271). However, English has not gained the status of being the native language amongst the Bahraini nation. It can be noted that English in the country is mandatorily learnt in Bahrain, and is also utilized across its wide communities. Communication in the country is both internal and external when English is concerned, and it is also fundamental to mention that the opinion persists that individuals in the kingdom have begun developing their own common English language norms.”

Based on research conducted, it can be noted that English is utilized across numerous contexts within the Kingdom of Bahrain. These contexts include commercial or service domains such as restaurants, cafes, shops and stores. Others are professional areas such as the work environment, and finally, academic contexts. Additionally, it can be stated that private sectors and institutes in Bahrain are noted to utilize English more frequently in comparison to those in public sectors. In fact, a higher percentage of the population actually work in the private sector rather than the public one. However, the number of actual Bahrainis employed in this sector forms the minority in comparison to other nationalities.

GELT/ELT in Bahrain

Overall, this study article has shown that English is becoming more popular in Bahrain. This spread could be explained by referring to a number of causes that have contributed to the current language situation. Globalization, official language policies, the extent of the private sector, and gender are all variables that have aided English’s spread in the country. This research also demonstrates that the linguistic situation in Bahrain is still under government control, as two of the three key tasks that English fulfills in Bahrain are directly controlled by the government. These are occupational and educational purposes, implying that the Bahraini government may readily change the country’s linguistic condition through language planning.

Key English language teaching policies in Bahrain

Bahrain is going toward creating a new education system or future structure of education in Bahrain that is more flexible in that students can receive one of the provided secondary tracks, notably Unified Track or Vocational Track. Students who choose the Unified Track can specialize in one of three areas: science, literature, or business. Students who choose the Vocational Education Track will either acquire a technical stream, which is separated into applied or technical vocational streams, or they will obtain an apprenticeship program. The new structure will allow graduates to continue their studies or enter the labor market, particularly technical school graduates who have struggled to get higher certificates.

Because of its comprehensive educational system, Bahrain has one of the most developed education systems in the Gulf, and it has recently achieved significant improvements in the use of information technology in classrooms. King Hamad bin Khalifa Al Khalifa launched a new project called King Hamad Schools of the Future. This initiative intends to connect and link all schools inside the kingdom to the internet and to spread the concept of education throughout the world. Bahrain education is undergoing massive reform measures aimed at developing the education system at all levels, which will begin with four major initiatives:

• Improving the teaching profession through better recruiting, training, and working circumstances.
• Improving Secondary Vocational Education with the goal of aligning these programs with the needs of the private sector.
• The establishment of the Bahrain Polytechnic, which will offer industrial courses matched with applied sciences, allowing students to achieve professional qualifications up to the degree level, with an emphasis on the development of practical skills directly applicable to the job market.
• Establishing an Independent Quality Assurance Authority, which will be in charge of inspecting schools, secondary vocational institutions and universities, higher education units, and administering school-level examinations.

The Ministry of Education has also recently established the school reform program, which aims to improve the performance of all Bahraini schools and students’ future career prospects through a series of projects that affect the entire learning and teaching process. These four steps are just the beginning of a long road to reform. They were chosen because they were in line with the national strategic plan for improving the quality of learning in Bahraini education and laying the groundwork for future reforms.

How GELT/ELT is used in academic institutions in Bahrain

Bahrain’s economic development strategies are based on six sectors, one of which being education and training. Bahrain’s educational system follows a nine-year basic education ladder that comprises both primary and intermediate stages, as well as three years of secondary education in its numerous tracks. Basic education is compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 14 in the Kingdom of Bahrain. All children are required to attend either public or private schools.

In light of a carefully analyzed plan and programmed projects, the Ministry of Education has placed a high value on the development of all educational phases. The following is a quick explanation of Bahrain’s educational phases.

Primary Stage
This is Bahrain’s first formal school ladder, and it accommodates children aged 6 to 11. It lasts six years and is divided into two cycles. The first cycle contains the first three grades of primary school; under this system, a single teacher teaches most courses except English language, design and technology, music education, and physical education. The second cycle consists of the higher three classes, which use the subject-teacher system, in which each subject is taught by a teacher who has specialized in a specific discipline and gained educational academic qualifications. Islamic education, Arabic language, English language, Science and Technology, Mathematics, Social Studies, Physical Education, Family Education, Art, Music, and Songs are all required topics in the first and second cycles of basic education.

Intermediate Stage
The intermediate stage is the third and final cycle in basic education, and it is for pupils aged 12 to 14. It lasts three years. To participate in this stage, you must have completed the sixth grade of the primary cycle or its equivalent in literacy education. In this stage, the topic-teacher method is used, in which each subject is taught by a teacher who has specialized in a specific discipline and gained educational academic qualifications. This stage’s curriculum comprises common subjects such as Islamic education, Arabic language, English language, science and technology, Mathematics, social studies, handcrafts, and physical education.

Secondary Stage
This stage is regarded a supplement to basic education and a new phase for the student in preparing him or her to enter universities and higher education institutions or directly into the work market. It accepts students aged 15 to 17; the program lasts three years and is divided into six semesters (three levels). The completion of the intermediate stage or its equivalent is required before beginning the first semester of secondary education.

How EMI is used in universities in Bahrain

The EDB (Bahrain Development Board) has launched a project to enhance schools, one of which is to improve English in public education through three initiatives:

• Building a teachers’ college in Bahrain where all courses are EMI.
• Building a technical college with EMI to provide skilled Bahrainis to the labor force.
• Creating a national examinations unit to measure the effectiveness of English instruction at the end of each cycle (primary, intermediate, and secondary).

As for the level of English for EMI teachers, the majority of them are expats who work in private schools and universities.

Sociolinguistic issues related to the application of EMI in this context

Bahrain is a constitutional monarchy with a history that dates back over 5000 years. It is the Gulf’s sole island state. It is also the smallest and most populous of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries. Because of Bahrain’s long political and trade ties with Britain (which continue in the modern globalized economy), English has been critical to the country’s economic existence. As a result, English has become an essential component of the Bahraini education system, and it is currently taught beginning in the first grade. It has also become the medium of instruction in several of the Kingdom’s higher education institutions.

This chapter explores the history of English education in Bahrain, contemporary changes, and the potential future landscape of English language policy in Bahrain. The chapter also offers suggestions on how to address some of Bahrain’s language and policy difficulties. Overall, many of Bahrain’s English language policy policies are succeeding in both the K–12 and higher education sectors.

Policies related to the use of EMI within Bahrain

Language is seen as an essential instrument for learning, teaching, and development since it promotes active thinking, knowledge acquisition, and communication. It is one of the driving forces toward global citizenship, and because we do not live in isolation from the global community, we all believe that language learning not only facilitates learning, but also gives learners the opportunity to be effective global citizens who contribute to Bahrain culture and world affairs.

Opinions of how EMI is used in Bahrain

EMI is more idealistic for instructors; teachers’ perspectives on EMI were more idealistic: EMI was seen to be a tool to increase communication, exchange ideas, and build relationships across countries, so fostering global peace. EMI was considered as a key to success for home students, a way to open doors. Teachers in Europe were well aware of the Bologna process, which allows for mobility within European universities. English was regarded as the new Latin, a global language capable of facilitating migration in academia and industry.

EMI was a personal challenge, an opportunity for instructors to grow personally and professionally while also advancing their careers. In an EMI situation, not only students but also teachers can become worldwide. In the public’s opinion, EMI was problematic for political and pedagogical reasons such as the desire to safeguard national languages and cultures, as well as a lack of well-thought-out policies. EMI could cause division and inequity. Concerns were stated that not all teachers were qualified or able to teach through EMI, and that an age gap existed; older teachers were unable to teach through EMI. Students may suffer as well, finding it too difficult to learn multiple languages and not being able to completely absorb the academic content.

Opinions of GELT/ELT in Bahrain

Delivering quality education will address critical gaps and weaknesses in student performance and success, teaching and learning standards and delivery, and overall higher education institution quality. The Higher Education Council (HEC) will begin international accreditation of its institutions in 2015; however, the institutions have failed to adequately respond to several reform recommendations and requirements from prior National Authority of Qualifications and Quality Assurance for Education and Training studies. While global education technological advancements are rapidly revolutionizing the K–12 and higher education landscapes, Bahrain has yet to capitalize on the latest trends and innovations that can accelerate the reform process.

Global higher education innovations are expanding access to excellent higher education and improving delivery methods while retaining quality learning results. With an increasing demand for higher education in the GCC, as well as a need for more effective employability skills, technology can provide more cost-efficient and innovative solutions to help the sector transition to the future knowledge economy.

Effective technology is increasingly critical in improving education by increasing learner effectiveness and engagement. Technology can help adapt individual students’ learning experiences, enhance student-teacher cooperation, and improve teaching performance and skills. The use of technology will inevitably result in regulatory issues for the Higher Education Council; nonetheless, the sector will need to focus on four priority areas in order to offer value-added technological solutions to the higher education sector:

• Technology infrastructure
• Assisted admission into higher education
• Learning analytics
• Capacity building

With the growing demand for higher education in Bahrain, as well as the need for more effective 21st century skills, EdTech projects can provide more cost-effective and innovative alternatives to driving the future knowledge economy.

EMI in Bahrain

Due to the rising importance of the English language across the globe, it is without a doubt noted that its imperativeness is also reflected in the Kingdom of Bahrain. With the need for English language speakers necessitated across varying professional and academic contexts, the Ministry of Education recognizes the need to place further focus on the development of education, with specific focus placed on English as a language. Within public schools, all educators of the language are expected to be graduates of English language programs, or education programs with adequate backgrounds in English to provide an effective exposure to students across all grade levels in the language.

In private schools, the English language is utilized to teach the vast majority of subjects excluding religion and citizenship. Thus, the language itself provides a medium for cultural exposure to also take place. This primarily prepares students for future professional contexts, as well as the pursuit of higher education within the country, or even across other English speaking countries. These practices are not limited to schools, but rather, also extend to universities. The majority of universities and institutes possess educational programs that are all taught in the English language as well. Within the University of Bahrain, the most prominent English Language and Literature major is taught, with minors available in Translation, alternate languages, as well as linguistics.

In terms of bilingual classrooms, this practice is often avoided in certain classrooms.

Recent EMI policies/decrees

There are official policies and pronouncements about EMI. Policies on EMI were discovered in 40% of the countries investigated, while formal statements were found in 49.1%. Given the reactions of teachers interviewed who were uninformed of any policy, this outcome was unexpected. Furthermore, EMI policies may be poorly communicated to teachers. Teachers in the Three Countries in Europe research were overwhelmingly ignorant of any EMI policy in their universities, although being fully aware of an increase in EMI and the relevance of programs like Erasmus.

EMI is used for a variety of reasons by various parties. Almost half of the countries have statements explaining why EMI was implemented. The stated reasons ranged from developing language learning skills, producing bilingual students, improving knowledge of a target culture, and opening up opportunities for students to work and study abroad, to spreading a country’s own culture throughout the world, and political reasons of nation-building and aligning a country with English-speaking neighbors. EMI represents internationalization and survival for administrators. EMI was appealing to university administrators for a variety of reasons, including promotion, globalization, and financial survival.

Introduction

Welcome to the Brazil Educational Context page!

Brazil is the fifth largest country in the world and its official language is Portuguese. With a population above 200 million people, diversity is huge in every aspect of Brazilian society. Education policy seeks to reduce inequalities among students nationwide: by law, every child over 5 years of age must be enrolled in an educational institution and complete basic education (twelve school years, divided into sections). After that, students can pursue higher education at universities.

Population: 213.3 million (July 2021)
Official Language: Portuguese

Languages in Brazil

In addition to Portuguese, more than 250 languages are spoken in Brazil. Many are Indigenous languages, while others stem from immigrant communities such as German and Italian. This linguistic richness shapes local identities and cultural expression.

English Language Education: Brief History

Over the years, English has taken the place of “the foreign language to be learned” in Brazil, due to political and social factors. Within schools, English appears in the national curriculum mainly through reading comprehension. Meanwhile, a growing private language-school market has emerged, compensating for limited communicative teaching in regular schools.

The British Council’s O ensino de inglês na educação pública brasileira (2015) reports that only 5.1 % of Brazilians aged 16 or older claim any knowledge of English, while among 18–24-year-olds the figure doubles to 10.3 %. These numbers reflect perceptions rather than proficiency and show how few students achieve communicative competence. Public-school English instruction often consists of a single hour per week, large classes, and limited teacher development. Many teachers juggle multiple jobs to supplement low salaries, leaving little time for training.

How English is used in Brazil

English in Brazil is primarily used and taught as a Lingua Franca — a means of global communication rather than a vehicle of native-speaker culture. Its role is expanding across business, academia, and online interaction, but proficiency remains largely tied to socioeconomic privilege.

GELT / ELT in the Brazilian Education Context

Baumvol & Sarmento (2019) note that, as the only Portuguese-speaking country of continental size in the Global South, Brazil experiences academic and linguistic isolation. Students returning from mobility programs often lack opportunities to maintain their English skills. In public schools, additional-language instruction has long been marginalized, leaving fluency largely to the private sector, which serves wealthier groups through 6 000 + language-school franchises growing ≈ 15 % per year (Windle & Nogueira 2015).

Disadvantaged learners rely on the public system, where teachers struggle with underfunding and outdated beliefs that foreign languages cannot be truly learned in regular schools. The result is limited motivation, minimal class hours, and poor continuity from primary to secondary education. Lima (2011) documents these systemic issues in English teaching does not work in public schools? Multiple perspectives.

EMI in the Brazilian Education Context

English-Medium Instruction (EMI) is growing but still nascent. Martinez (2016) dates its rise to around 2010, noting that initial offerings were sporadic and unofficial. While EMI courses multiply, research and policy frameworks lag behind. The British Council and FAUBAI (Brazilian Association of International Education) map this growth through their Guide: English as a Medium of Instruction in Brazilian Higher Education Institutions 2018-2019.

The Guide explains that Brazilian higher education comprises two levels — basic (early childhood, primary, secondary) and higher (undergraduate & graduate). Standard bachelor’s degrees span four years; professional fields like engineering or law require five years, medicine six. This contextualizes the integration of EMI modules across universities and technology colleges.

Between 2016 and 2019 Brazilian HEIs registered a steep increase in courses delivered wholly or partly in English, signaling a strategic move toward internationalization and greater participation in global academic exchange.

Introduction

Welcome to the ELINET Cyprus page!

Cyprus, an island in the Eastern Mediterranean, presents a distinctive educational landscape and has become an emerging hub for international education and academic internationalization. As a member of the European Union, Cyprus benefits from its strategic location connecting Europe, Africa, and Asia. Its multicultural, English-speaking society—shaped by colonial history and a growing migrant population—enhances its attractiveness as a destination for global education.

The education system spans pre-primary to tertiary levels, combining public and private institutions. Pre-primary education lasts one to two years (optional), primary six years (mandatory), lower secondary three years, followed by upper secondary general (Lyceum) or vocational education (both three years). Cyprus participates fully in the Bologna Process and offers extensive higher education opportunities.

Location: Eastern Mediterranean, third-largest island after Sicily and Sardinia
Area: 9 251 km²
Population: 1 358 282 (2024 UN est.)
Capital: Nicosia
Official Languages: Greek and Turkish
Status of English: ESL / EFL – widely spoken and used in education and business

Languages in Cyprus

Despite its size, Cyprus is linguistically diverse. Greek Cypriots speak Cypriot Greek; Turkish Cypriots, Cypriot Turkish. Minority and immigrant communities add Western Armenian, Cypriot (Maronite) Arabic, Kurbetcha (Romani variety), and languages such as French, Bulgarian, Russian, Arabic, Sinhala, and Tamil. English remains an important lingua franca due to British influence and a strong expatriate presence.

English Language Education: Brief History

English gained prominence with the start of British rule (1878). Although Ottoman control continued formally until 1914, English rapidly spread through administration, trade, and education. Independence in 1960 established Greek and Turkish as official languages, but English remained in administration and business until the 1980s. Even after its gradual replacement by Greek, English proficiency stayed crucial for employment and social mobility.

From 1931 onward, the colonial government made English compulsory in schools and a requirement for public-sector promotion. By independence, English was deeply embedded in public life, and post-colonial reforms never eliminated its influence. Today, English functions as a core second language and as the primary medium in many private schools and universities.

How English is used in Cyprus

Research (e.g., Buschfeld 2013; Fotiou 2023) describes “Cyprus English” as a hybrid between ESL and EFL. Older generations acquired English through daily contact with the British, whereas younger speakers learn it mainly through schooling. Pronunciation generally follows British norms, though rhotic /r/ and vowel simplifications are common. Code-switching between English and Greek Cypriot appears mainly in informal contexts.

GE / ELT in Cyprus

Primary Education: English instruction begins in Grade 1 of public schools. The Ministry of Education supports CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning), and a CLIL Coordinating Centre (2015) guides implementation. Private English-language schools provide immersive education, and many students take Cambridge English exams.

Secondary Education: English remains compulsory, with 2 hours per week minimum; Lyceum students may take up to 6 periods. Numerous private schools teach fully or partially in English, and Technical & Vocational Education integrates English for workforce readiness.

Higher Education: State universities teach mainly in Greek but offer selected Bachelor’s programs in English. Private universities operate largely or entirely in English. English proficiency is required for admission to international programs and for study abroad.

EMI in Cyprus

English plays a major role in Cypriot higher education, reflecting the island’s British legacy and its drive to internationalize. Between 2010 and 2020 the education sector grew by 80 %, with 50 000 students enrolled in 2018–19 — international students tripled in five years, representing 60 + countries.

Both public and private universities offer EMI programmes across disciplines from engineering to law and medicine. Cyprus thus positions itself as a regional hub for research and international education.

Internationalization and Language Policy

Cyprus pursues an ambitious internationalization agenda through the “Cyprus Lifelong Learning Strategy 2021-2027” and the “Research and Innovation Strategy 2024-2026.” These emphasize English as a bridge for global collaboration and employability. The national language-education policy promotes bilingualism (Greek + English), teacher training in ELT, and integration of English across subjects via CLIL and EMI.

Introduction

Germany is a central player in European education and research, with a federal education system and 16 Länder (states) responsible for schooling. The country’s strong academic and vocational traditions coexist with increasing globalization, making English a vital language for higher education, business, and intercultural communication.

Population: 84 million (2024 est.)
Official Language: German
Status of English: EFL / EMI in higher education; compulsory in schools

Languages and Education in Germany

German is the national language, with recognized minority languages such as Danish, Frisian, Sorbian, and Romani. Due to immigration, Turkish, Arabic, Kurdish, and Polish are also widely spoken. English has become Germany’s primary foreign language in education, business, and academia.

English Language Education: Brief History

English gained importance in the postwar period through economic ties, the British and American presence, and Germany’s growing role in international markets. Today, English is a compulsory subject beginning in Grade 3 or earlier, depending on the state. By the end of secondary education, students are expected to reach CEFR level B2–C1. In vocational and technical schools, English focuses on workplace communication and global industries.

How English is used in Germany

English functions as the primary lingua franca in business, academia, tourism, and digital communication. German companies such as Siemens, BMW, and SAP frequently use English as a corporate language, while universities increasingly adopt English-medium programs to attract international students. The prevalence of English in media and youth culture further reinforces everyday bilingualism.

Global Englishes Language Teaching (GELT) in Germany

The GELT movement is gaining visibility in German academia and teacher education. It promotes awareness of global linguistic diversity, moving beyond traditional British or American models toward inclusivity and intercultural competence. Teacher education programs in universities such as Münster, Bielefeld, Passau, and Paderborn include modules on Global Englishes and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF).

Research focuses on integrating GELT principles into curricula, redefining communicative competence, and fostering critical reflection about language norms. ELINET’s German branch plays an active role in connecting research with classroom practice.

Key Projects and Publications

• Edited Volume: GELT in Germany, Austria and Switzerland (Bloomsbury, forthcoming 2026, ed. Julia Reckermann & Ricardo Römhild)
• Edited Volume: English Language Education in Times of Global Changes (Peter Lang, forthcoming 2027, ed. Katharina v. Elbwart & Peter Hohwiller)
• Magazine Project: English around the Globe – published in Grundschule Englisch (Friedrich Verlag), coordinated by Julia Reckermann & Miriam Nienhaus, with contributions by Reckermann, Schildhauer, and v. Elbwart.

Introduction

Indonesia, the world’s largest archipelagic nation, stretches across 17 000 islands and is home to over 270 million people. Its linguistic and cultural diversity make it one of the most multilingual countries in the world. Bahasa Indonesia serves as the national language and a unifying tool across hundreds of ethnic and regional languages.

Population: 279 million (2024 est.)
Official Language: Bahasa Indonesia
Recognized Regional Languages: Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Madurese, Acehnese, Minangkabau, Bugis, and others

Languages and Education in Indonesia

The education system is centralized under the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology (Kemendikbud Ristek). Indonesia has implemented a 12-year compulsory education policy consisting of six years of primary, three of lower secondary, and three of upper secondary education. English is a compulsory foreign language from Grade 7 (lower secondary) onward, though private and international schools often introduce it much earlier.

English Language Education: Brief History

English entered Indonesian education during Dutch colonial rule, but its prominence rose sharply after independence (1945) as the country sought integration into global trade and diplomacy. Since the 1975 curriculum reform, English has been the first foreign language taught nationally, focusing initially on grammar-translation and later on communicative competence. In 2013, the national curriculum emphasized English as a tool for global communication, cultural understanding, and employability.

How English is used in Indonesia

English functions as a foreign language rather than a second language. It is widely used in tourism, business, and higher education, especially in major urban centers like Jakarta, Yogyakarta, Surabaya, and Bali. In recent years, English-Medium Instruction (EMI) programs have expanded, particularly in private universities and international schools.

GELT / ELT in Indonesia

The integration of Global Englishes principles into English Language Teaching (ELT) has been encouraged by scholars such as Yasemin Kirkgoz and Anggita Nurul Aryanti, who highlight the need for contextualized, locally relevant pedagogy. The focus is on preparing students to communicate effectively with speakers of diverse Englishes, rather than merely imitating native norms. Teacher-training institutions are gradually adopting materials reflecting regional accents, pragmatic norms, and intercultural awareness.

EMI in Indonesia

English-Medium Instruction is steadily growing across Indonesian higher education. The government supports internationalization through programs such as Kampus Merdeka (“Independent Campus”) and World-Class University Initiative, which promote bilingual or full-English courses. EMI programs are especially concentrated in STEM, business, and hospitality disciplines.

Challenges include teachers’ varying English proficiency, lack of EMI-specific training, and resource disparities between urban and rural universities. Nonetheless, institutions like Universitas Gadjah Mada, Universitas Indonesia, and Bina Nusantara University have pioneered successful bilingual curricula.

Policy and Teacher Development

National teacher-development schemes such as Program Guru Penggerak (“Lead Teacher Program”) and the Teacher Professional Education Program (PPG) incorporate English proficiency and intercultural teaching modules. Universities collaborate with the British Council, SEAMEO RELC, and the ASEAN EMI Network for workshops and joint research.

Introduction

South Africa is the southernmost country on the African continent and one of the most linguistically diverse nations in the world. It recognizes eleven official languages, with English serving as a key language of business, government, and higher education. The country’s complex colonial and apartheid history continues to shape its sociolinguistic landscape and language-in-education policy today.

Population: ≈ 62 million (2024 est.)
Official Languages: Afrikaans, English, isiNdebele, isiXhosa, isiZulu, Sepedi, Sesotho, Setswana, SiSwati, Tshivenda and Xitsonga
Status of English: Second Language / Lingua Franca / Medium of Instruction in HE

Languages and Education in South Africa

The South African Constitution guarantees linguistic equality and encourages mother-tongue education. In practice, however, English dominates as the language of power and access. Basic Education follows a 12-year structure (Grades R–12) divided into Foundation, Intermediate, Senior and Further Education & Training phases. Learners study in their home language for the first 3 years, after which English or Afrikaans becomes the medium of instruction.

English Language Education: Brief History

English was introduced during British colonial rule (1795–1910) and consolidated through missionary and state schooling. Under apartheid (1948–1994), language policy enforced segregation and favored Afrikaans and English over African languages. Post-1994 reforms, starting with the Language-in-Education Policy (1997), aimed to promote multilingualism and equity, declaring all 11 languages official while reaffirming English as a critical language for social mobility and global participation.

How English is used in South Africa

English serves as the lingua franca in urban centers, higher education, government, law, and the media. It co-exists with rich multilingual practices such as translanguaging and code-switching across communities. In popular culture, “South African English” (SAE) represents a localized variety influenced by Afrikaans and indigenous languages.

GELT / ELT in South Africa

English Language Teaching emphasizes communicative competence and inclusivity, yet teachers often navigate multilingual classrooms where learners’ repertoires extend far beyond English. Research highlights translanguaging pedagogy and decolonial approaches as effective in bridging home and school languages. Universities and teacher-education programs integrate Global Englishes and multilingual awareness into curricula.

EMI in South African Higher Education

English Medium Instruction predominates at South African universities, especially in research-intensive institutions such as the University of Cape Town, Witwatersrand, Stellenbosch and Pretoria. Although Afrikaans once dominated certain campuses, most have transitioned to English for accessibility and internationalization. At the same time, multilingual policies encourage parallel courses or support modules in indigenous languages.

Policy and Sociolinguistic Issues

Despite progressive multilingual policies, implementation gaps persist due to economic and social inequalities. English proficiency remains closely tied to privilege, while rural schools face resource shortages. Current reforms under the Department of Higher Education & Training promote the development of indigenous-language terminology and multilingual assessment frameworks.

Introduction

Thailand, located in mainland Southeast Asia, is a constitutional monarchy with a long tradition of valuing education as a vehicle for modernization. English has played an increasing role in Thai education and international relations since the mid-20th century, especially following Thailand’s integration into ASEAN and the global economy.

Population: ≈ 70 million (2024 est.)
Official Language: Thai
Status of English: Foreign language / Lingua Franca in business and tourism

Languages and Education in Thailand

Thai is the national language and medium of instruction, but more than 60 minority languages are spoken nationwide, including Lao, Malay, Khmer and Karen varieties. The Ministry of Education (MOE) oversees a 6-3-3 system: six years of primary, three of lower-secondary and three of upper-secondary schooling. English is a compulsory subject from Grade 1 through Grade 12. The 2017 Basic Education Core Curriculum highlights communication skills, intercultural awareness and lifelong learning.

English Language Education: Brief History

Western missionaries introduced English teaching in the 19th century. After World War II, modernization and American influence expanded English instruction nationwide. The 1999 National Education Act made foreign-language proficiency a key competence, while the 2008 curriculum reform emphasized communicative approaches and integration with information technology.

How English is Used in Thailand

English is essential in tourism, international trade and higher education. Bangkok functions as a regional hub for global business and aviation, where English is widely used as a lingua franca. In rural areas, exposure is limited and proficiency levels vary considerably. National campaigns such as English Speaking Year 2012 and Thailand 4.0 seek to raise national English competence.

GELT / ELT in Thailand

English-language teaching in Thailand remains exam-oriented but is increasingly influenced by Global Englishes perspectives. Teacher-education programs promote awareness of diverse Englishes and intercultural communication. Researchers such as Banchasa Suk-An have explored attitudes toward ASEAN English and Thai English, highlighting the need to embrace linguistic plurality and intelligibility rather than native-speaker conformity.

EMI in Thailand

English-Medium Instruction has grown rapidly in Thai higher education since the 1990s. Public and private universities offer EMI programs, particularly in business, engineering and hospitality. Government initiatives such as the Policy on International Education 2016 – 2036 support bilingual programs to attract ASEAN students. Challenges include teachers’ limited EMI training, varying proficiency, and students’ unequal access to English resources.

Policy and Teacher Development

The Office of the Basic Education Commission (OBEC) collaborates with the British Council and regional universities to develop the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TETL) framework and the English for Integrated Studies (EIS) model. Training emphasizes communicative teaching, CLIL methods and assessment literacy.

Introduction

Taiwan is a multilingual society located off the southeastern coast of China. Its education system has undergone rapid reform and internationalization since the 1990s, making English a major focus of national development. In 2019, the Taiwanese government launched the Bilingual 2030 Policy to establish Taiwan as a bilingual nation by 2030, integrating English across education, administration, and business.

Population: ≈ 23.6 million (2024 est.)
Official Language: Mandarin Chinese
Recognized Languages: Taiwanese Hokkien, Hakka, and 16 Indigenous languages
Status of English: Foreign language / Medium in international programs

Languages and Education in Taiwan

Taiwan’s Ministry of Education (MOE) manages a 12-year compulsory-education system (six years primary, three junior high, three senior high). English became a required subject in Grade 3 in 2005 and is offered in nearly all schools. Private bilingual and international schools have grown rapidly, emphasizing English-medium content courses alongside the national curriculum.

English Language Education: Brief History

English teaching began under Japanese colonial rule (1895–1945) and expanded after the post-war American presence. The MOE’s 1998 Curriculum Guidelines shifted the focus from grammar translation to communicative competence. Subsequent reforms—especially the 2019 Bilingual 2030 initiative—moved toward English-medium content learning and CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). Teacher-education programs now include TESOL and bilingual methodology modules.

How English is Used in Taiwan

English serves as the main foreign language for education, research and global business. It is increasingly used in higher education and STEM research publishing. Government agencies encourage EMI courses in public universities and support citizen English programs through community centres. Many companies use English for international communication while maintaining Mandarin for domestic operations.

GELT / ELT in Taiwan

Global Englishes and ELF (English as a Lingua Franca) research have gained momentum through the work of scholars such as Ziwei Zhou and Leviana Venanda. Their projects focus on how teachers perceive non-native accents and intercultural competence in Taiwanese classrooms. Universities like National Taiwan Normal University (NTNU) and National Chengchi University (NCCU) offer MA and PhD programmes with GELT components.

EMI in Taiwan

Taiwan’s EMI movement has accelerated since 2014, supported by the MOE’s “Program on Bilingual Education for Students in College (BEST)” and the 2021 Higher Education Sprout Project. Public and private universities offer full or partial EMI degrees in engineering, business and biotechnology. Students in EMI courses may choose English theses and participate in international exchange programs through MOE funding.

Policy and Teacher Development

The MOE funds teacher-training schemes to prepare educators for bilingual teaching. The Bilingual Education Resource Center (2020) and Fulbright Taiwan co-organize EMI workshops for faculty. Certification frameworks align with CEFR and TESOL standards. Teachers receive subsidies for English proficiency tests and international exchange.

Introduction

Turkey straddles Europe and Asia and has long viewed education and language policy as central to modernization. Turkish is the national language, but English has become the dominant foreign language and a key component of higher-education internationalization.

Population: ≈ 86 million (2024 est.)
Official Language: Turkish
Status of English: Foreign language / Medium of Instruction in many universities

Languages and Education in Turkey

The Ministry of National Education (MoNE) oversees a 12-year system (4 + 4 + 4). English is compulsory from Grade 2 onwards. Public schools follow a national syllabus, while private and Anatolian schools may add bilingual or full-English tracks. At university level, EMI (English-Medium Instruction) programs have expanded rapidly since 2000.

English Language Education: Brief History

English instruction began with Ottoman modernization reforms in the 19th century. After the founding of the Republic (1923), foreign-language policy shifted from French to English, reflecting Western alignment. Since the 1980s, globalization and EU engagement have further strengthened English education. The 2013 curriculum reform introduced communicative and CLIL-based methodologies.

How English is Used in Turkey

English functions as a foreign language for most citizens but dominates in tourism, commerce, diplomacy and academia. Turkish universities require English proficiency exams for admission to EMI programs, and many graduates use English professionally in global companies.

GELT / ELT in Turkey

Research by Feza Kerestecioğlu and Hacer Kaçar emphasizes the integration of Global Englishes perspectives into teacher education. Courses now address language diversity, intercultural communication and World Englishes intelligibility. Pre-service teacher programs encourage reflection on linguistic identity and equitable assessment practices.

EMI in Turkey

EMI has become a national priority. The Council of Higher Education (YÖK) reports that over 40 % of universities offer partial or full EMI programs. Private universities such as Koç, Sabancı and Bilkent operate almost entirely in English, while state universities increasingly offer English-taught majors in engineering, business and medicine. Preparatory schools (“hazırlık okulları”) provide intensive English courses before entry to EMI faculties.

Policy and Teacher Development

YÖK and MoNE collaborate with the British Council on nationwide teacher-training projects. EMI faculty development centers at METU and Koç University provide training in English for Academic Purposes (EAP), assessment and student-centered instruction. Current policies aim to align university programs with CEFR and international accreditation standards.